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somatic embryogenesis
Somatic embryogenesis is a process where a plant or embryo is derived from a single somatic cell or group of somatic cells. Somatic embryos are formed from plant cells that are not normally involved in the development of embryos, i.e. ordinary plant tissue. No endosperm or seed coat is formed around a somatic embryo. Applications of this process include: clonal propagation of genetically uniform plant material; elimination of viruses; provision of source tissue for genetic transformation; generation of whole plants from single cells called protoplasts; development of synthetic seed technology. Cells derived from competent source tissue are cultured to form an undifferentiated mass of cells called a callus. Plant growth regulators in the tissue culture medium can be manipulated to induce callus formation and subsequently changed to induce embryos to form from the callus. The ratio of different plant growth regulators required to induce callus or embryo formation varies with the type of plant.〔http://www.accessexcellence.org/LC/ST/st2bgplant.html ''Plant Tissue Culture''〕 Somatic embryos are mainly produced ''in vitro'' and for laboratory purposes, using either solid or liquid nutrient media which contain plant growth regulators (PGR’s). The main PGRs used are auxins but can contain cytokinin in a smaller amount.〔E.F. George et al. (eds.), Plant Propagation by Tissue Culture 3rd Edition, 335-354.〕 Shoots and roots are monopolar while somatic embryos are bipolar, allowing them to form a whole plant without culturing on multiple media types. Somatic embryogenesis has served as a model to understand the physiological and biochemical events that occur during plant developmental processes as well as a component to biotechnological advancement.〔Quiroz-Figueroa, F. R., Rojas-Herrera, R., Galaz-Avalos, R. M., and Loyola- Vargas, V. M. 2006. Embryo production through somatic embryogenesis can be used to study cell differentiation in plants. Plant Cell Tiss. Org. Cult. 86: 285–301.〕 The first documentation of somatic embryogenesis was by Steward et al. in 1958 and Reinert in 1959 with carrot cell suspension cultures.〔Steward, F.C., Mapes, M.O., and Smlth, J. (1958). Growth and organized development of cultured cells. I. Growth and division of freely suspended cells. Am. J. Bot. 45, 693-703.〕〔Reinert J (1959) Uber die kontrolle der morphogenese und die induktion von adventivembryonen an gew- ebekulturen aus karotten. Planta 53:318–333〕
==Direct and indirect embryogenesis==
Somatic embryogenesis has been described to occur in two ways: directly or indirectly.〔Sharp et al. (1980). In: Horticultural Reviews,Vol. 2. (janick, J., ed.). AVI Publishing Co, Westport, Conn., USA, p. 268.〕 Direct embryogenesis occurs when embryos are started directly from explant tissue creating an identical clone. Indirect embryogenesis occurs when explants produced undifferentiated, or partially differentiated, cells (often referred to as callus) which then is maintained or differentiated into plant tissues such as leaf, stem, or roots.
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